Spring 2005

Our information processing systems are often limited by our working memory capacity, a subset of longterm memory (1-3). We have quick access to working memory but it has finite capacity (1). Higher-level cognitive processes are limited by working memory capacity; notetaking, which involves synthesizing complex concepts and procedures and writing them down, is a higherlevel cognitive process (1). Note-taking is an effective means for students to better retain lecture ideas and overcome limitations of working memory capacity.

Theoretically, note-taking can help students learn by both encoding and external storage functions (2). Encoding refers to the process of listening to a lecture, comprehending the lecture ideas, and then writing down the critical information in the student's own words (4,5). In this manner, the student learns from the act of note-taking itself. External storage simply refers to the use of lecture notes as an information storage medium that is "external" to a student's memory (e.g., the student's notebook) (4,5). For external storage, the value of notetaking is the resulting product that is later reviewed by the student. Most studies report that review of lecture notes improves student performance more than not reviewing notes, thereby supporting the external storage theory (5-8) Study results on the effects of encoding on student achievement are mixed. For example, some studies have found that note-taking may be no more effective than simply listening to the lecture if the notes are not reviewed (5,7).

Ineffective note-taking on the part of the students may compound the problem, as well. When students create their own lecture notes, they are often incomplete or incorrect. Katayama and Robinson report that students taking notes often record less than half the critical lecture points and that first-year college students record as few as 11 percent of their instructor's critical lecture ideas (7,9). Because student-authored notes tend to be incomplete, a number of studies have investigated the effect of providing students with instructor-prepared notes (5,7,8,10). When note-review periods last longer than 30 minutes, these studies generally agree that reviewing the instructor's notes led to greater achievement than reviewing personal notes. In fact, Kiewra found that students who did not even attend the lecture but reviewed the instructorauthored notes performed better than students who attended the lecture and reviewed their personal notes (7). This research indicates that providing students with instructor-authored notes can improve student achievement and learning.

So, how can we use our new understanding of working memory capacity, external storage, and encoding to improve student learning through better note-giving techniques? As instructors, we must try to avoid exceeding a student's working memory capacity and insure the student leaves class with a set of lecture notes (external storage medium) that includes all the major lecture ideas. Before rushing to your computer and creating detailed note packets for your students, though, you should consider the benefits of student learning by encoding. If students receive detailed instructor-authored notes, they may lose the benefits of learning from encoding. They may also become listless and inattentive in class or, even worse, they may decide that they don't need to attend class because they already have all the class notes. In preparing notes for my students, I have found great success in providing them with only partially complete sets of notes that follow a Concept-Theory-Example organizational model.

For a given classroom lecture, I first discuss the qualitative concept of the subject matter. This part of the lecture is designed to introduce the topic and spur student interest. The notes that I provide to the students for this part of the lecture are very sparse and might only include a lecture title, a heading called "Introduction," and blank space on the page. I often encourage my students to listen to this part of the lecture without writing, and then I give them a few minutes to think about what they just learned and write down the concept in their own words. This process maximizes learning by encoding.

I then begin the theory part of the lecture. This part might include mathematical derivations, descriptions of technical procedures, or definitions of new terms. For this portion of the lecture, I typically provide the students with relatively detailed, instructor-authored notes to insure that they leave with accurate external storage information and that their working memory capacity is not exceeded during the lecture. They can also think more and write less during this part of the lecture. This is typically the most "tedious" part of the lecture for students, but if they are interested in the concept, they likely will listen and learn about the details (i.e., theory) that support the concept.

Finally, I close the lecture with an example problem that illustrates the concept and underlying theory. Typically, I provide the students only with the problem statement, supporting data, and a blank page. In this way, I can work through the problem with the students, or I can ask the students to attempt to solve the problem by themselves or in groups. By the end, the students can see how the concept and theory can be applied to solve a practical problem, they have learned the conceptual material by encoding (and reinforced this with their own student-authored notes), and they have an accurate and complete set of instructor-authored notes detailing the theory.

In summary, it is important not to exceed the students' working memory capacity and to help them learn by both encoding and external storage mechanisms. Using a concept-theory-example lecture format coupled with an instructor-supplied outline of the notes can help maximize student learning.

References
(1) Cohn, E., Cohn, S., and Bradley, J., 1995. "Notetaking, Working Memory, and
Learning in Principles of Economics." Journal of Economic Education, v. 26, no. 4,
p. 291-307.
(2) DiVesta, F.J., and Gray, G.S., 1972. "Listening and Note-taking." Journal of
Educational Psychology, v. 63, p. 8-14.
(3) Einstein, G.O., Morris, J., and Smith, S., 1985. "Note-taking, Individual Differences,
and Memory for Lecture Information." Journal of Educational Psychology, v. 77,
no. 5, p. 522-532.
(4) Benton, S.L., Kiewra, K.A., Whitfill, J.M., and Dennison, R., 1993. "Encoding and
External-storage Effects on Writing Processes." Journal of Educational Psychology,
v. 85, no. 2, p. 267-280.
(5) Knight, L.J., and McKelvie, S.J., 1986. "Effects of Attendance, Note-taking, and
Review on Memory for a Lecture: Encoding vs. External Storage Functions of
Notes." Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, v. 18, no. 1, p. 52-61.
(6) Baker, L., and Lombardi, B.R., 1985. "Students' Lecture Notes and their Relation to
Test Performance." Teaching of Psychology, v. 12, no. 1, p. 28-32.
(7) Kiewra, K.A., 1985. "Providing the Instructor's Notes: An Effective Addition to Student
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(8) Russell, I.J., Caris, T.N., Harris, G.D., and Hendricson, W.D., 1983. "Effects of Three
Types of Lecture Notes on Medical Student Achievement." Journal of Medical
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(9) Katayama, A.D., and Robinson, D.H., 2000. "Getting Students 'Partially' Involved in
Note-taking Using Graphic Organizers." The Journal of Experimental Education,
v. 68, no. 2, p. 119-133.
(10) Kiewra, K.A., DuBois, N.F., Christian, D., and McShane, A., 1988. "Providing Study
Notes: Comparison of Three Types of Notes for Review." Journal of Educational
Psychology, v. 80, no. 4, p. 595-597. Morgan, C.H., Lilley, J.D., and Boreham,
N.C., 1988. "Learning from Lectures: The Effect of Varying the Detail in Lecture
Handouts on Note-taking and Recall." Applied Cognitive Psychology, v. 2,
p. 115-122. Murphy, T.M., and Cross, V., 2002. "Should Students Get the
Instructor's Lecture Notes?" Journal of Biological Education, v. 36, no. 2,
p. 72-75.